Reach touch voltages are different to touch voltages and automatically set to zero when the distance between the voltage point on the ground surface and the grid conductor which is touched exceeds a reach distance.

Copper is often preferred for its superior electrical properties, while aluminum and galvanized steel are chosen for cost-effectiveness. Copper-clad steel can offer a balance between cost and performance. This article demonstrates which option is best for different scenarios.

This article shows the effects of soil resistivity and thickness of layers on grid resistance for earthing systems in multilayer soils. Increasing the resistivity of soil layers tends to increase the grid resistance, no matter which soil layer that is. Increasing the thickness of any soil layer with high resistivity also increases grid resistance and if the soil layer thickness is increased for a low resistivity layer then the grid resistance will decrease. Software modelling is performed and the results are compared and shown to match well with those from CDEGS software.

The effects of lightning strikes on earthing or protection systems designed to IEC 62305 can be modelled using an equivalent single frequency from 25kHz up to 1MHz which gives similar results to a time-domain approach. This article provides the frequency and current values to be used for modelling lightning.