This article provides typical values for surface layer resistivity to be used for earthing and ground electrical calculations of touch and step voltages.

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Soil resistivity is one of the most critical factors affecting earthing and grounding system performance and safety. In cold climates, the top-soil layers may be frozen during the winter or spring seasons, and resistivity may increase to as high as 10,000 Ω.m in the frozen soil layers. This can give rise to significant touch voltage hazards during an earth fault.

How to design and model earthing systems for a solar PV farm to the latest practices and standards. Soil resistivity, fault levels, and safety are covered.

Should a metal fence be bonded to the substation earth grid? The metal fences around substations keep people out but they pose earthing safety challenges. These metallic fences, which are easily accessible to the public and personnel, must be adequately earthed and touch voltages on them during an electrical fault must not exceed safe limits.

Metal earthing rods that are encased inside concrete will have a lower resistance. Concrete has a typical electrical resistivity of between 30 Ohm.m to 200 Ohm.m.